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Will Museveni Survive Mabira or Will Mabira Survive Museveni

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Whether you look at it as a political or economic issue, President Yoweri Museveni’s insistence on giving away part of Mabira forest to the Sugar Corporation of Uganda (SCOUL) to boost sugar production is a decision that continues to surprise and irk his enemies and allies alike.

Despite strong opposition to his proposal from Uganda’s opposition and even many members of his ruling National Resistance Movement government, Museveni has insisted that the forest (which he says is degraded) should be given to SCOUL. While the President continues to insist that he needs scientific evidence that giving away part of Mabira forest will result in dire environmental consequences before he changes his mind, there is a lot of talk that Museveni’s strong stand in wanting to give away Mabira is not connected to sugar production.

It is not the first time Museveni has tried to give away that very part of Mabira, considered to be one of the most environmentally valuable forests in Uganda and Africa in general. He tried in 2007 with disastrous consequences where the anti Mabira give away demonstrations in Kampala alone resulted in the death of more than two people and destruction of property. As Museveni should know better than anyone else, the mood in the country right now, is even more against the give away of the forest.

Why Museveni’s stand on Mabira is so surprising?There are many people discontented about the economic hard times that the country is going through that striking over Mabira is almost a given if a decision is passed to this effect. There have already been protests by opposition activities, teachers, drivers and taxi operators, traders, lecturers and students of Makerere; while many more groups are threatening to go on strike. Museveni is aware of the delicate volatile situation but the man will not change his stand on Mabira give away.

Museveni has on several occasions rejected offers for alternative land to increase sugar cane production, leaving many wondering what it is the president wants with Mabira. The leaders in newly created Bungokho district in July offered to provide land to SCOUL to grow sugarcane there and establish a factory, but Museveni rejected the offer, saying if the land is available, it will be given to another investor. Museveni continuously reasons with Mehta that the investor needs to get land within 30kms of his current factory.

Why Mehta’s SCOUL?

Yet many people have long been concerned on why this focus on Mehta and his SCOUL. Neither the only or biggest sugar producer, SCOUL’s placement at the center of solving Uganda’s sugar shortage is not making sense to many Ugandans, with some alluding to some factors being behind the decision that are more than meet the eye. The Madvhani owned Kakira Sugar Works produces over 50% of Uganda’s sugar, while Kinyara Sugar Works and SCOUL each produce an average of 25% of the sugar in Uganda. All companies heavily export sugar and there is concern on whether sugar shortage is a result of limited production capacity or unlimited possibility by sugar producers to export sugar to better paying neighbors especially South Sudan.

The biggest surprise however was the way Museveni backed up his position saying “Mehta has said he (Mehta) does not mind what the public thinks against giving him the forest”. This made many people wonder whether Museveni, the strong almost single handed supreme leader of the NRM that has dominated Uganda’s politics since his military take-over in 1986 is taking orders from Mehta. Many people have been asking themselves why Museveni should mind more about what Mehta thinks and not what the majority of Ugandans think. Mehta also continues to insist that only part of Mabira will allow him to increase sugar production (never mind the company not offering any production capacity guarantees).

It seems this kind of situation is behind the talk doing rounds in Kampala that Museveni and his NRM owes something to Mehta that makes the businessman be able to put the President under pressure to do what he (Mehta) wants, not withstanding the negative repercussions as in this case. In fact, one man claiming to be a security operative told UGPulse that it is suspected Museveni promised to give Mehta part of Mabira forest for the support Mehta has provided to Museveni and NRM since the start of the guerilla way back in 1981.

“The businessman has been patient, waiting for the promised land to be given to him and it has reached that time when the president feels he should deliver on that promise,” the man said, refusing to divulge his names. Efforts to get a comment from Mehta Group about this were futile as calls were not returned as promised.

Unconvincing and lonely Museveni

While Museveni has insisted his interest in this matter is to ensure more sugar production, and ultimately serve the needs of Uganda, the man who recently won the elections with more than 68% of the votes cast (according to official results declared by the Electoral Commission) has not managed to convince many people (if any at all) that it is necessary to give away part of Mabira forest.

When Museveni called the NRM Parliamentary Caucus over the matter, most of the MPs vehemently opposed the president on giving away the forest, urging their leader to consider other alternatives.

“I will not support its giveaway because there is alternative land being offered on leasehold by the Church of Uganda and the Buganda Land Board,” said Ezra Kwizera (NRM), the deputy chairperson of the Natural Resources Committee.

Other MPs led by Kampala Central MP, Muhammed Nsereko (NRM), Theodore Sekikubo (NRM Rwemiyaga), Dr. Chris Baromunsi (NRM Kinkizi West) and a host of other legislatures said the President has been misguided and is bent on something clearly opposed by the majority of Ugandans. The Mps have threatened to organize rallies and protests against the give away of Mabira.

Even key allies like Museveni’s Senior Presidential Advisor on Media and Public Relations, John Nagenda have publicly criticized the president for insisting on giving away the forest, with Nagenda even accusing the president of not listening to sound advise, and increasingly becoming autocratic.

Some people are also concerned that the statements coming out of the president’s mouth defending his position. They have been unconvincing as they have been disappointing.

“I do not need any lessons on forests. I saved Mabira when we took power. Idi Amin had given it to the people. Unlike some of those who engage in arrogance over Mabira, I do not drink alcohol or go to bars. I always think about developing Uganda for the well-being of Ugandans,” the President said recently while meeting teachers, where he accused those against the give away of Mabira of being arrogant.

In another incident, Museveni blamed the current sugar scarcity resulting in high sugar prices on the opposition, singling out Beatrice Anywar, the shadow Cabinet minister for energy for leading a successful protest against Mabira give away in 2007.

Anywar who heads the Save Mabira Crusade had led a group of people opposed to the Mabira give away to meet the president over the matter, although the two sides failed to change each other’s views on the matter.

“If the government had given alternative land in 2007, the sugarcane would be under harvest now. The president should stop the blame game and diverting people’s attention from the current economic crisis, rising unemployment and poverty,” Anywar said recently.

Is the Mabira saga a political game by Museveni?

In fact, there are some people praising the President for being an astute politician who is always thinking way ahead of the rest and landing political maneuvers when and wherever it matters most. Those of this view say that Museveni knows that there are many people concerned about high sugar prices and he has to come out with a big reason why the government will not be able to solve the sugar scarcity problem. “Museveni is not interested in giving away Mabira. He knows what people think and feel about this forest, but he wants to have an excuse in the future if there is insufficient supply of sugar,” says one Deo Kimami, a trader.

But others believe the president’s rigid and rugged support to the Mabira give away was a well calculated political move to divert the attention of Ugandans from the effects of the economic hard times that had started causing strike after strike and protest after protest. “This is one of Museveni’s master strokes. He has succeeded in making many people concentrate on Mabira and forget the economic issues biting the common man,” says an NRM supporter who asked not to be named.

There are also those saying the President will finally give in to anti Mabira sentiments, and finally show all and sundry what a listening and responsive leader he is. In fact, other than the recent gesture of inviting the Save Mabira Crusade leaders to his country home to explain to him “their reasons for opposing his proposal of giving away the forest”, Museveni recently said the forest will only be given away if the Parliament agrees (and not by his decree only).  Although Museveni who has an overbearing hand on this majority NRM legislature, many NRM MPs have already opposed the move and it is expected he will please those in the NRM who are opposed to the Mabira give away, in addition to scoring against the opposition as being a listening president. Some people are also mentioning the fact that there has never been a cabinet meeting and resolution on this matter, and the fact that only Museveni and no other minister is marketing this proposal is reason enough to be a Museveni-only political master card.

How about the other land being given away?

But this might be reading too much into a situation, given that Museveni has also proposed to give away land to other sugar producers in Masindi (to Kinyara Sugar Works) and in Amuru (to Kakira Sugar Works). Museveni recently invited district leaders and agricultural officers across the country for a meeting at State House where he gave a three-month ultimatum to the relevant government ministries to give Isinmab prison land in Masindi to Kinyara Sugar Works.

The King of Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom Omukama Solomon Gafabusa Iguru and leaders in the area were also quick to oppose this government proposal, arguing that the prison land (which Iguru claims was grabbed by the government from the kingdom) should instead be given out to sugarcane out-growers to increase their production and supply of cane for sugar production. The kingdom also urged the government to compel sugar factories to give fair conditions and payment to out-growers to encourage them to grow and supply more sugarcane. The shortage of sugar was partially attributed to a strike by workers and out-growers in Masindi based Kinyara Sugar works where some sugar plantation were burned down after unmet demands for better pay.

Museveni is also pushing for Madhvani owned Kakira Sugar Works to be given land in Amuru district to construct a sugar factory and establish sugarcane plantations there. The local people have been up in arms against the proposal, although in this case Kakira Sugar Works is expected to pay compensation to the affected residents.

So surely, this land giving for improved sugar production is beyond the Mabira give away debate. Or is it? So for many people, a question still lingers on why President Museveni is insisting on giving away part of Mabria forest. For now, most Ugandans are increasingly debating (with concern) whether Mabira forest will survive Museveni-the-man who vehemently and relentlessly wants to give part of the forest away, or if Museveni goes ahead and gives out Mabira, he will survive the give away of arguably Ugandans’ dearest forest.

The Rise of Lwakataka

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When it comes to bragging in Uganda, Rally driver Ponsiano Lwakataka only shares the super rights with Kick boxer, Moses Golola.  But in Lwakataka’s case, many more people say that he deserves to brag considering where he has come from visa vis the star cult status he has established in the sport of motor rallying in Uganda.

The rise of Lwakataka

In the sport of motor rallying, it’s a rare occurrence in the last two decades that a driver is compared to the skills of the former Dembe Rally team driver, Karim Hirji or corner specialist Chipper Adams. When the duo’s reign came to an end, there arose the era of the likes of Charles Muhangi, Charlie Lubega, Moses Lumala and Emma Katto before the arrival of the late Riyaz Kurji  on the scene.

But as the “hey” days of the above quartet seem to be over, one can hear ringing bells alerting the ever vocal 38 year old Ponsiano Lwakataka to take over the mantle.

Rwakataka has gone an extra mile of establishing an empire of motor rallying in his family.  His wife Rose Rwakataka is among the most popular female rally drivers in the country only next to Suzan ‘Iron Lady’ Muwonge. As if this is not enough, he has embarked on grooming his children too, in this sport.

From fishmonger to motor rallying

Lwakataka, formerly a fish monger along Lake Victoria, joined motor rallying a decade ago plying his trade in a lesser Toyota Lavin that could only render him a participant in events other than a competitor.

In 2004, he climbed the ladders when he acquired Subaru Impreza N4 which his fans nicknamed ‘Yellow bird.’   Despite the acquisition of that machine, things never worked out till 2005 when he claimed the National Rally Championship (NRC) title after beating the likes of big boys Ronald Ssebuguzi and the Riyaz Kurji (RIP).

That triumph was his turning point. Since then Lwakataka never stepped back the pedal as evidenced by his performance in 2007 when he won his second National Rally Championship  title.

After a one year holiday, he returned in 2009 in style, armed with a powerful Subaru Impreza N8 machine that hasn’t only tormented local drivers but also left a mark at the international stage.

Pearlof Africa Rally Champion

Lwakataka’s rallying career reached its apex in June this year (2011) when he lifted one of Africa’s most prestigious championship, the Pearl of Africa Uganda Rally that had eluded him for a long time despite giving his all in the competition over the years. This was to a surprise of most of the Ugandan motor rallying fraternity basing on the international big names he tussled it out with. This included African reigning champion Jimmy Whyte from Zimbabwe, Burundi’s Allan Bethise, Christak Fitidis of Rwanda and the Madagascan pair of Fredrick Rokotomanga and Ronarievo Jean.

His victory meant that he joins the elite class of greats, Charles Muhangi, Charlie Lubega, and Chipper Adams as the only Ugandans to have won that championship.

The 38 year old was overjoyed after the victory.  “I had suffered painful exits for long. This is just a beginning and the best is yet to come, because my target is to once rule the African Continent,” said Lwakataka shortly after arriving at the finishing Podium.

Ending a painful wait

He was referring to his painful exits in the 2005, 2006 and 2010 editions in which he narrowly missed winning the championship. In 2005, just like in 2006, Lwakataka was relegated to the second position behind the late Riyaz Kurj and in 2010 he was only denied by mechanical problems of his car, dropping in the final section while commanding a comfortable lead.

He has just punctuated his so-far-so-good season with a victory in the Eastern Motor Rally championship, the second last on the National Rally Calendar. Lwakataka’s  win wasn’t only a big blow to Suzan’ iron lady’ Muwonge’s  quest of becoming the first lady to scoop the Ugandan National Rally Championship title but also meant that the title might go on wire. This is after Lwakataka cut Muwonge’s lead to only 25 points.

Tough road to success

As the a common aphorism goes that no gain without pain, Lwakataka’s  path to success hasn’t been a bed of roses throughout his eleven year old motor rallying career as he is often endured through a forest of controversies especially with the Ugandan Motor Rally governing body, FMU.

Among his notable hiccups, two years ago Rwakataka was banned from the sport as a result of fielding his under-aged sons in a sprint he had organized in Mukono. This is contrary to the rules of the sport.

This occurred shortly before the 2005 saga in the Pearl of Africa Rally in which he was accused of tampering with his engine after posting an ‘abnormal’ time in the Circuit. Lwakataka though refutes the allegation. “It wasn’t true. I just decided to heavy my foot on the pedal,” he brags.

Controversies surrounding Lwakataka seem to be endless; in the previous two seasons, top drivers, including Ssebuguzi, declined to take part in any rally in which the later was involved in organization. This was in protest that Lwakataka manipulates events.

Whatever the case, Lwakataka amidst his brag-ish nature, remains the current leading rally driver in the Uganda whose only undoing emanates from the unquestionable competition from his adversaries.

Hoping for more glory

After failing to score even a single point from Tanzania Rally held this month – September 2011, the 2006 National Champion Posiano Lwakataka is still confident that he will make it at the final Independence Rally October 14-16 in Mukono and Buikwe districts. Lwakataka hopes to  reclaim the title from reigning National Champion, Nasser Mutebi. He will have to fight the Iron Lady who leads the pack with 365 points and currently puts him in second place with 340 points.

“I know I can comfortably win the NRC title without even participating in the Tanzanian Rally. In fact I had changed my mind not to make it to Tanzania but my fans have advised me not to take any more chances for granted. You know in motor rallying the driver commands only 20% to his or her success and the rest belongs to the almighty God,” Lwakataka had said before the past Tanzania Rally, on his chances of lifting the championship.

Finally Tinyefuza Vacates KCCA House

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The coordinator of intelligence services, Gen. David Tinyefuza today morning (Wednesday) vacated the house belonging to the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA), ending a row over its occupation.

The house located on Plot 2, Mabua Road in Kololo, an upscale Kampala suburb, served as a national intelligence coordinator centre headed by Gen.Tinyefuza.

By 9:00am, all the property in the posh house had been removed. The last items which included chairs, tables and other household items were ferried on two small pick-ups at 8:30am.

Speaking shortly after handing over the house to KCCA, security minister, Muruli Mukasa lauded the Authority for allowing the army to use the house.

He appealed to KCCA to maintain a cordial relationship with the army, saying both were serving the good of the country.

The keys of the house have been given to the Deputy Director of physical planning Goerge Agaba by the security minister Mukasa Muluuli.

The hand over marks the end of a standoff between KCCA and General Tinyefuza, who had earlier threatened to arrest any one who attempted to evict him.

The recovery of the house is part of a campaign by KCCA to recover its properties, which were illegally sold off or given away by the previous leadership.

Agaba says there are more KCCA properties that are still in the wrong hands, which the authority is vowing to pursue.

Gen. Tinyefuza was not at the scene but the house was empty and clean.

Musevenism: When the President Has to Handle Every Issue

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The dire economic times in Uganda have once again brought up the issue of whether Uganda’s government institutions are functioning the way they should be. As different groups of people rise up to express their concerns and discomfort, there is an increasing trend of every group only settling after meeting the President. It is like no other government office or official in Uganda can ever do anything trustable other than the big man himself.

The opposition has for long been criticizing the NRM government, led by President Yoweri Museveni, of failing to foster the growth of government institutions. But what has not been clear until recently is how bad the situation is when an every issue seems only solvable by the President.

When a group of traders under their umbrella group Kampala City Traders Association (KACITA) recently went on strike over the decreasing value of the Uganda shilling over the dollar, URA charging taxes in dollars and high license fees, their strike was only stopped after they met and “got assurance from President Museveni that their issues would be handled”.

The Minister of Trade and Industry Amelia Kyambadde had held two meetings with the traders but they refused to halt on their demands until “they meet the President”.

Minister Kyambadde had made many promises including suspending trading license fees (which she later retracted) and the Bank of Uganda intervening in the forex market to save the Uganda shilling as well a possible talk to URA over requiring taxes on imported goods in US dollars. The traders only calmed down and called off the strike after meeting president Museveni immediately after his return from a four day state visit in South Africa.

Just a few days later, a group of taxi drivers in Kampala unhappy about the way the Uganda Taxi Drivers and Operators Association was conducting city transport declared a sit down strike. The country was shocked when the chairman of the group- Drivers and Conductors association (DACCA) Mustafa Mayambala said the President had called him and promised to meet the drivers to look into their concerns.

The same drivers group had attended a joint meeting between them and UTODA concerned by the Vice President Edward Kiwanukan Ssekandi. The complaining traders refused to call off the strike despite an order by Ssekandi for UTODA to halt collection of some fees (which even UTODA did not honour). The drivers resumed work the next day only after meeting the President at Statehouse Entebbe in which he assured them that their concerns will be handled.

Not long after this incident, teachers under their Uganda National Teachers Union went on strike asking for 100% salaries increase from the current average of 200,000 shillings that a teacher in primary schools earn. The teachers have long demanded a pay rise saying the money they are paid is too little to even look after one person. The situation was exacerbated by the rising price of essential goods and services both for schools and in their personal homes.

Despite several meeting with MPs, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance officials, the teachers continued with their strike until the President, who had earlier said their demands cannot be met, agreed to meet them. Museveni met the teachers’ leaders at State House and set up an inter-ministerial committee to look into their demands and meet them within a month.

These are just some of the recent incidents which depict the worrying situation where government offices and officials up to the Vice President are treated with contempt or side stepped by those with any demand until they meet with the President and his view or directive on the matter.

There have been long held concerns over the President and Statehouse directing activities in many government offices, included purchases of key equipment, solving land conflicts, employment of key staff as well as allocation of scarce resources.

There are concerns that such a situation has reduced public confidence in government institutions solving people’s day to day problems and meeting the service delivery needs of the public.

But how did this come about, and what are the implications of such an attitude towards government institutions and the general governance of Uganda?

Wafula Ogutu, the Spokesperson of the leading opposition political party Forum for Democratic Change says Museveni’s leadership has from the beginning concentrated on promoting him as a person and neglected building public institutions that should adequately handle routine government business.

“That is exactly what Museveni wants. To be the alpha and omega of everything in Uganda. Every government activity rotates around him. He has managed to make Ugandans to believe that it is only him that matters and is the solution to every problem,” he said in an interview.

It is not only the opposition leaders that are concerned. One of the NRM leaders recently criticized Museveni for over concentration of powers in the Presidency, leaving his ministers and other government officials with almost no power to handle issues concerning the nation.

The youth national coordinator of NRM, Sewava Serubiri termed the trend as ‘Musevenism’. He says that the act by the president to meet every group of people who have grievances with the way the government is handling issues undermines powers of ministers and other government officials.

“All these groups are playing with the president. But it could also be because he is a more accessible leader. It is hard for the local masses to access ministers than the President because of the long process in seeking an appointment with the ministers,” Serubiri says.

Prof. Aaron Mukwaya, a political science lecturer at Makerere University says while in being easily accessible the President manages to respond to people’s needs and demands, this should be done in a way that does not compromise state institutions and undermine public offices.

“If the President is being consulted as the highest authority on any matter, that is ok. But if he has to respond to everything that comes up, what will other public officials running government institutions do? The government structure and hierarchy needs to be respected. We also need to know whether the President is acting alone or with the responsible public officials on a given matter in arriving at a decision,” Prof. Mukwaya says.

Some people are also concerned that public officials manning government institutions might fear to do their work because the president might have his own take at things should anyone complain. Not so long ago, it was reported that Bank of Uganda Governor Prof. Emanuel Tumusiime Mutebile had expressed concern at the way the government was spending when the President ordered for the purchase of two fighter jets at 1.7 trillion shillings from the government treasury, which money was not budgeted for.

Mutebile later came out to say he did not question the President’s decision or directive, and has since said little at the current economic crisis where inflation is at 18%, the Uganda shilling is strongly weakened against major foreign currencies, and prices of essential commodities like food, sugar, soap and fuel are rising by the day beyond the affordability of most Ugandans.

Museveni has always insisted there is no problem in Uganda, attributing the price fluctuations to imported inflation, over dependence on imports and drought. A cabinet meeting has been called on Thursday August 5th to discuss the dire economic situation but it is not clear whether any minister or government technocrat will push views centrally to what the President thinks.

While the principle of collective responsibility binds all ministers and government officials to follow the government’s official line, and no one can practically expect a minister of subordinate to contradict their boss, more Ugandans are getting concerned that little will be done on any issue (however small) until the President or State House is involved.

Ugandan Couple Weds In Baltimore

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The Ugandan community gathered in Baltimore to celebrate the marriage of Dubar Kamara and Apolo Ndyabahika today.

Ndyabahika’s family hails from Kabale in Uganda, and Kamara is from both Kabale and Mufore in Sierra Leone. The ceremony incorporated both cultures. A cultural group also performed Kiganda dance.

Winnie Byanyima and Dr. Kizza Besigye came as honorable dignitaries to the event.

Kamara was the first in her village to graduate from college. She went to John Hopkins University. Ndyabahika studied at Messiah College.

The couple plans to settle in the Washington metropolitan area.

Bududa Mudslide: Affected Residents Appeal for Resettlement

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Bududa landslides

Following the mudslides that occurred in Shamwiyi village in Bulucheke Sub County in Bududa district that seriously injured six people last week, residents there have appealed to government to find an alternative land to relocate them for safety of being swept away given the eminent sign of a possible landslide in the area.

The appeal was made by the area local Council II chairperson of SakuSaku parish Mr. John Mushalaka August 11 saying about 300 households from four affected villages of Shamwiyi, Wanzeketse, Shinyenye and Shiwowo are at a risk of being swept by mudslide and that residents are in dare need of relocation.
He added that although these residents are willing to relocate, they do not have an alternative land to relocate to given the fact that where they live and cultivate from is their only ancestral land they posses thus the need for government intervention to save their plight.

“All of us here are willing to relocate to a safer land if government can provide it for us. At the moment we do not have anywhere to relocate to yet we are living in fear everyday there is torrential rainfall because there are eminent signs of possible reoccurrence of mudslides which puts us at risk of death,” said Mr. Mushalaka.

According to the district’s production officer Mr. Simon Wadada, the topography of the area stands at an altitude of over 80 degrees centigrade which is too steep for human habitation and cultivation saying the 300 households estimated to accommodate about 21, 000 people are all at a high risk of a possible mudslide if the torrential rains persisted now and in the future.

He explained that the rise in population around the slopes of Mt. Elgon led to encroachment on forest reserve land for cultivation which involved clearing of soil reservation vegetation thus weakening the soils saying it’s this situation that poses a danger to any human life living there.

“Any topography above 60 degrees centigrade is considered inhabitable therefore living at an altitude of over 80 degrees like for the parish of SakuSaku puts the residents there at a risk therefore government should respond to their call and relocate them,” said Mr. Wadada.
The chief administrative officer Mr. Vitalis Oswan told Daily Monitor that his office has contacted the ministry of relief and disaster preparedness in response to the residents call and that they are yet to receive a feed back on the same.

He said, “We have tabled the residents’ concerns to the office of the prime minister and we believe the ministry of relief and disaster preparedness is going to respond soon. We are also working hand in hand with Red Cross to see how to assist the victims,” Mr. Oswan said.
When contacted on phone, the state minister for relief and disaster preparedness Mr. Musa Ecweru said his office is trying to ascertain the number of those living in very risky areas so government can budget for their relocation.

Mr. Ecweru explained that he has instructed local leaders to meanwhile persuade them to live the risky areas and seek alternative residence with their relatives living on habitable land as government formalizes plans to find land for their relocation.

“Obviously we must relocate them but it is not going to take immediate effect. The local leaders have already been dispatched to this area to find immediate solutions like persuading the affected people to live the risky land and seek refugee with their relatives as government finds alternative land for their relocation,” Mr. Ecweru said.

2011 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics

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2011 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics

World Hunger Education Service

This fact sheet is divided into the following sections:

  • Hunger concepts and definitions
  • Number of hungry people in the world
  • Does the world produce enough food to feed everyone?
  • Causes of hunger
  • Progress in reducing the number of hungry people
  • Micronutrients

Hunger concepts and definitions

Hunger is a term which has three meanings (Oxford English Dictionary 1971)

  • The uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite. Also the exhausted condition caused by want of food
  • the want or scarcity of food in a country
  • a strong desire or craving

World hunger refers to the second definition, aggregated to the world level. The related technical term (in this case operationalized in medicine) is malnutrition.1

Malnutrition is a general term that indicates a lack of some or all nutritional elements necessary for human health (Medline plus Medical Encyclopaedia).

There are two basic types of malnutrition. The first and most important is protein-energy malnutrition–the lack of enough protein (from meat and other sources) and food that provides energy (measured in calories) which all of the basic food groups provide. This is the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed. The second type of malnutrition, also very important, is micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiency. This is not the type of malnutrition that is referred to when world hunger is discussed, though it is certainly very important.

[Recently there has also been a move to include obesity as a third form of malnutrition. Considering obesity as malnutrition expands the previous usual meaning of the term which referred to poor nutrition due to lack of food inputs.2 It is poor nutrition, but it is certainly not typically due to a lack of calories, but rather too many (although poor food choices, often due to poverty, are part of the problem). Obesity will not be considered here, although obesity is certainly a health problem and is increasingly considered as a type of malnutrition.]

Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is the most lethal form of malnutrition/hunger. It is basically a lack of calories and protein. Food is converted into energy by humans, and the energy contained in food is measured by calories. Protein is necessary for key body functions including provision of essential amino acids and development and maintenance of muscles.

Take a two-question hunger quiz on this section

Number of hungry people in the world

925 million hungry people in 2010

No one really knows how many people are malnourished. The statistic most frequently cited is that of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, which measures ‘under nutrition’. The most recent estimate, released in October 2010 by FAO, says that 925 million people are undernourished. As the figure below shows, the number of hungry people has increased since 1995-97, though the number is down from last year. The increase has been due to three factors: 1) neglect of agriculture relevant to very poor people by governments and international agencies; 2) the current worldwide economic crisis, and 3) the significant increase of food prices in the last several years which have been devastating to those with only a few dollars a day to spend. 925 million people are 13.6 percent of the estimated world population of 6.8 billion. Nearly all of the undernourished are in developing countries.

Number of hungry people, 1969-2010

Source: FAO

In round numbers there are 7 billion people in the world. Thus, with an estimated 925 million hungry people in the world, 13.1 percent, or almost 1 in 7 people are hungry.

The FAO estimate is based on statistical aggregates. The FAO first estimates the total food supply of a country and derives the average per capita daily food intake from that. The distribution of average food intake for people in the country is then estimated from surveys measuring food expenditure. Using this information, and minimum food energy requirements, FAO estimates how many people are likely to receive such a low level of food intake that they are undernourished.3

Under nutrition is a relatively new concept, but is increasingly used. It should be taken as similar to malnutrition. (It should be said as an aside, that the idea of undernourishment, its relationship to malnutrition, and the reasons for its emergence as a concept is not clear to Hunger Notes.)

Children are the most visible victims of under nutrition. Children who are poorly nourished suffer up to 160 days of illness each year. Poor nutrition plays a role in at least half of the 10.9 million child deaths each year–five million deaths. Under nutrition magnifies the effect of every disease, including measles and malaria. The estimated proportions of deaths in which under nutrition is an underlying cause are roughly similar for diarrhoea (61%), malaria (57%), pneumonia (52%), and measles (45%) (Black 2003, Bryce 2005). Malnutrition can also be caused by diseases, such as the diseases that cause diarrhoea, by reducing the body’s ability to convert food into usable nutrients.

According to the most recent estimate that Hunger Notes could find, malnutrition, as measured by stunting, affects 32.5 percent of children in developing countries–one of three (de Onis 2000). Geographically, more than 70 percent of malnourished children live in Asia, 26 percent in Africa and 4 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean. In many cases, their plight began even before birth with a malnourished mother. Under-nutrition among pregnant women in developing countries leads to 1 out of 6 infants born with low birth weight. This is not only a risk factor for neonatal deaths, but also causes learning disabilities, mental, retardation, poor health, blindness and premature death.

Take a three-question hunger quiz on this section

Does the world produce enough food to feed everyone?

The world produces enough food to feed everyone. World agriculture produces 17 percent more calories per person today than it did 30 years ago, despite a 70 percent population increase. This is enough to provide everyone in the world with at least 2,720 kilocalories (kcal) per person per day (FAO 2002, p.9). The principal problem is that many people in the world do not have sufficient land to grow, or income to purchase, enough food.

What are the causes of hunger?

What are the causes of hunger is a fundamental question, with varied answers.

Poverty is the principal cause of hunger. The causes of poverty include poor people’s lack of resources, an extremely unequal income distribution in the world and within specific countries, conflict, and hunger itself. As of 2008 (2005 statistics), the World Bank has estimated that there were an estimated 1,345 million poor people in developing countries who live on $1.25 a day or less.3 This compares to the later FAO estimate of 1.02 billion undernourished people. Extreme poverty remains an alarming problem in the world’s developing regions, despite some progress that reduced “dollar–now $1.25– a day” poverty from (an estimated) 1900 million people in 1981, a reduction of 29 percent over the period. Progress in poverty reduction has been concentrated in Asia, and especially, East Asia, with the major improvement occurring in China. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of people in extreme poverty has increased. The statement that ‘poverty is the principal cause of hunger’ is, though correct, unsatisfying. Why then are (so many) people poor? The next section summarizes Hunger Notes answer.

Harmful economic systems are the principal cause of poverty and hunger. Hunger Notes believes that the principal underlying cause of poverty and hunger is the ordinary operation of the economic and political systems in the world. Essentially control over resources and income is based on military, political and economic power that typically ends up in the hands of a minority, who live well, while those at the bottom barely survive, if they do. We have described the operation of this system in more detail in our special section on Harmful economic systems.

Conflict as a cause of hunger and poverty. At the end of 2005, the global number of refugees was at its lowest level in almost a quarter of a century. Despite some large-scale repatriation movements, the last three years have witnessed a significant increase in refugee numbers, due primarily to the violence taking place in Iraq and Somalia. By the end of 2008, the total number of refugees under UNHCR’s mandate exceeded 10 million. The number of conflict-induced internally displaced persons (IDPs) reached some 26 million worldwide at the end of the year. Providing exact figures on the number of stateless people is extremely difficult But, important, (relatively) visible though it is, and anguishing for those involved conflict is less important as poverty (and its causes) as a cause of hunger. (Using the statistics above 1.02 billion people suffer from chronic hunger while 36 million people are displaced [UNHCR 2008])

Hunger is also a cause of poverty, and thus of hunger. By causing poor health, low levels of energy, and even mental impairment, hunger can lead to even greater poverty by reducing people’s ability to work and learn, thus leading to even greater hunger.

Climate change Climate change is increasingly viewed as a current and future cause of hunger and poverty. Increasing drought, flooding, and changing climatic patterns requiring a shift in crops and farming practices that may not be easily accomplished are three key issues. See the Hunger Notes special report: Hunger, the environment, and climate change for further information, especially articles in the section: Climate change, global warming and the effect on poor people such as Global warming causes 300,000 deaths a year, study says and Could food shortages bring down civilization?

Progress in reducing the number of hungry people

The target set at the 1996 World Food Summit was to halve the number of undernourished people by 2015 from their number in 1990-92. (FAO uses three year averages in its calculation of undernourished people.) The (estimated) number of undernourished people in developing countries was 824 million in 1990-92. In 2009, the number had climbed to 1.02 billion people. The WFS goal is a global goal adopted by the nations of the world; the present outcome indicates how marginal the efforts were in face of the real need.

So, overall, the world is not making progress toward the world food summit goal, although there has been progress in Asia, and in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Micronutrients

Quite a few trace elements or micronutrients–vitamins and minerals–are important for health. 1 out of 3 people in developing countries are affected by vitamin and mineral deficiencies, according to the World Health Organization. Three, perhaps the most important in terms of health consequences for poor people in developing countries, are:

Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency can cause night blindness and reduces the body’s resistance to disease. In children Vitamin A deficiency can also cause growth retardation. Between 100 and 140 million children are vitamin A deficient. An estimated 250,000 to 500 000 vitamin A-deficient children become blind every year, half of them dying within 12 months of losing their sight. (World Health Organization)

Iron Iron deficiency is a principal cause of anaemia. Two billion people—over 30 percent of the world’s population—are anaemic, mainly due to iron deficiency, and, in developing countries, frequently exacerbated by malaria and worm infections. For children, health consequences include premature birth, low birth weight, infections, and elevated risk of death. Later, physical and cognitive development is impaired, resulting in lowered school performance. For pregnant women, anaemia contributes to 20 percent of all maternal deaths (World Health Organization).

Iodine Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) jeopardize children’s mental health– often their very lives. Serious iodine deficiency during pregnancy may result in stillbirths, abortions and congenital abnormalities such as cretinism, a grave, irreversible form of mental retardation that affects people living in iodine-deficient areas of Africa and Asia. IDD also causes mental impairment that lowers intellectual prowess at home, at school, and at work. IDD affects over 740 million people, 13 percent of the world’s population. Fifty million people have some degree of mental impairment caused by IDD (World Health Organization).

(Updated August 17, 2011)

Footnotes

1. The relation between hunger, malnutrition, and other terms such as under nutrition is not ‘perfectly clear,’ so we have attempted to spell them out briefly in “World Hunger Facts.”

2. For example, the Oxford English Dictionary (1971 edition) has ‘insufficient nutrition’ as the only meaning for malnutrition.

3. For discussions of measuring hunger see Califero 2011, Headey 2011 and Masset, in press.

4. The table used to calculate this number.

Region

% in $1.25 a day poverty

Population (millions)

Pop. in $1 a day poverty (millions)

East Asia and Pacific

16.8

1,884

316

Latin America and the Caribbean

8.2

550

45

South Asia

40.4

1,476

596

Sub-Saharan Africa

50.9

763

388

Total Developing countries

28,8

4673

1345

Europe and Central Asia

0.04

473

17

Middle East and North Africa

0.04

305

11

Total

5451

1372

Source: See World Bank PovcalNet “Replicate the World Bank’s Regional Aggregation” at http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povDuplic.html (accessed May 7, 2010). Also see World Bank “PovcalNet” at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTPOVRES/EXTPOVCALNET/0,,contentMDK:21867101~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:5280443,00.html

Bibliography

Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J. “Where and why are 10 million children dying every year?” Lancet. 2003 Jun 28;361(9376):2226-34.

Black, Robert E, Lindsay H Allen, Zulfiqar A Bhutta, Laura E Caulfield, Mercedes de Onis, Majid Ezzati, Colin Mathers, Juan Rivera, for the Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. (Article access may require registration) The Lancet Vol. 371, Issue 9608, 19 January 2008, 243-260.

Jennifer Bryce, Cynthia Boschi-Pinto, Kenji Shibuya, Robert E. Black, and the WHO Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group. 2005. “WHO estimates of the causes of death in children.” Lancet ; 365: 1147–52.

Cafiero, Carlo and Pietro Gennari. 2011. The FAO indicator of the prevalence of undernourishment FAO

Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Blössner M, Black RE. Undernutrition as an underlying cause of child deaths associated with diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and measles. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004; 80: 193–98.

Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion. June 2004. “How have the world’s poorest fared since the early 1980s?” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3341 Washington: World Bank.

de Onis, Mercedes, Edward A. Frongillo and Monika Blossner. 2000. “Is malnutrition declining? An analysis of changes in levels of child malnutrition since 1980.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2000, : 1222–1233.

Food and Agriculture Organization, International Fund for Agricultural Development, World Food Program. 2002 “Reducing Poverty and Hunger, the Critical Role of Financing for Food, Agriculture, and Rural Development.”

Food and Agriculture Organization. 2006. State of World Food Insecurity 2006

Food and Agriculture Organization. 2010. The state of Food Insecurity in the World 2010

Headey, Derek. 2011. “Was the Global Food Crisis Really a Crisis? Simulations versus Self-Reporting”, IFPRI Discussion Paper 01087.

International Food Policy Research Institute. 2010. 2010 Global Hunger Index

Masset, Edoardo. 2011 In Press.A review of hunger indices and methods to monitor country commitment to fighting hunger Food Policy.

Oxford University Press. 1971. Oxford English Dictionary. Definition for malnutrition.

Pelletier DL, Frongillo EA Jr, Schroeder D, Habicht JP. The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1995; 73: 443–48.

United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees. 2007. Statistical Yearbook 2006Main Findings

UNHCR 2008 Global Report 2008 “The Year in Review” http://www.unhcr.org/4a2d0b1d2.pdf

World Bank. Understanding Poverty website

World Health Organization Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Childhood and Maternal Undernutition

The Politics of Sugar

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Sugar has lately become the hottest political issue following a sharp increase in the price of the commodity reported over the past three weeks. The abnormal rise in the price of sugar has brought a fast reaction from the government which on Friday August 6th announced a 100% waiver of all taxes on sugar imports.

Retail sugar prices have in the past month increased from about 2,600 shillings to 6,000 shillings while in some upcountry places, a kilo of sugar is going for as much as 10,000 Uganda shillings. At many shops and supermarkets, traders are rationing sugar, with no one allowed to buy more than two kilograms at once, while sugar queues have been reported at many supermarkets.

The price of a bag of sugar has increased from 125,000 to between 220,000 -310,000 due to inability of the country’s sugar producers to provide enough sugar as demanded by Ugandans. Uganda has three sugar producing companies, Kakira Sugar works (owned by the Mahdvani group), Kinyara Sugar Works (owned by Rai Group and Uganda government) and SCOUL (Sugar Corporation of Lugazi) owned by the Mehta group.

Many Ugandans are wondering whether they can afford sugar especially in this hard time when most of the other commodities including food items are coming at high prices. The country is witnessing the highest inflation in 10 years, currently standing at 18% according to the Uganda National Bureau of Statistics monthly report on inflation for July 2011.

Government swings into action

After a two day cabinet meeting, President Yoweri Museveni announced that the government would allow “controlled sugar imports of up to 40,000 tons for six months to address the current sugar scarcity”. To facilitate this, the government announced a 100% waiver of sugar import taxes.

Mayur Madhvani, the Managing Director of Kakira Sugar Works, Uganda’s leading sugar manufacturer accounting for 50%) said President Museveni has allowed them to import 25,000 tons of sugar for six months while the rest will be imported by Ligazi and Kinyara.

According to Mahdvani, the imports are expected to see a kilogram of sugar costing between 3,500 and 4,000 Uganda shillings. This might calm down some people but it will leave sugar unaffordable or too expensive for many people.

The president had also announced a ban on exportation of sugar which some were blaming for the shortage of the commodity on the local market, but the government backtracked a day later with Trade minister Amelia Kyambadde saying the government has not banned sugar exports, but will undertake “more regulation of the sugar export and import market to ensure adequate supply of sugar in the country”.

Why the sugar shortage?

The first official statements from government indicated that sugar production in Uganda had reduced because of a halt in production at two of the sugar producing factories as they undertake routine maintenance of their sugar production mills.

The sugar producers additionally blame the sugar shortage on the drought experienced in sugar growing areas with some reporting less supplies from sugarcane out growers. But at Kinyara Sugar factory, production has also been affected by the workers strike who burnt more than 10 acres of sugarcane last month.

However, some of the sugar producers are claiming that the high sugar prices are worsened by traders who are hoarding the sugar in order to sell it at high prices. This is a line many government officials including President Museveni and Trade Minister Amelia Kyambadde have also bought, with the President on Friday making every kind of threats against such traders.

In a televised address on Friday, the President threatened arrest to such traders, and later said his NRM will consider setting up a private company to compete with such traders who want to make abnormal profits at the expense of Ugandan consumers.

However, the management of Lugazi and Kakira Sugar works told President Museveni who inspected their factories on Friday that their factory prices have not increased, with Lugazi saying they are selling a kilogram at2, 248 shillings, while Kakira says they are selling a kilogram of sugar at 2,240 shillings.

Sugar export and production capacity issues

But even before these problems, the Minister of industry James Shinyambulo Mutende says that sugar factories in Uganda were producing less sugar than is currently demanded in the local market. “They can only produce about 160,000 metric tons of sugar yet the local market demand stands at 200,000 metric tons creating a deficit of about 40,000 metric tons per year,” he says. Yet the sugar companies are free to export some of the sugar to more lucrative markets in neighbouring countries.

As a matter of fact, some traders in Kampala say the continued exportation of sugar to neighboring countries especially South Sudan by these companies which are protected to produce affordable sugar for Uganda is the main cause of this current sugar shortage.

There are also those who put the blame on the government restriction of the importation of sugar into the country with the aim of protecting the local sugar producing companies . Some people have been expressing concern that all sugar producing companies are not actually local as they are all owned by foreigners, save for Kinyara Sugar where the government has a minority stake.

How sugar prices affect consumers

Whatever the causes, the reality is that many people are now finding sugar unaffordable, or cutting deeper into their already lean disposable income. Other than some families who are now being forced to take less sugar or fore-go sugar completely, the high prices are also affecting a lot of other products and services which are made from raw material that include sugar.

Providers of fresh juice in different restaurants, as well as tea and coffee services earlier this week announced an almost double increase in prices of a glass of juice, cup of tea/coffee respectively. A glass of juice increased from 1,000 to 2000, a cup of plain tea from 400 to 600 shillings due to the hike in sugar prices.

Many of such small scale entrepreneurs complained that customers are no longer drinking their juice and tea, with many worrying of an unprepared journey back to their village because they can no longer make a living in Kampala.

Other products, especially bread that like sugar must be present at many dining tables for breakfast are also being affected since sugar is a key ingredient in baking bread. A bread of one-kilogramme commonly known as family bread is already going for 3, 200 from 2, 800 shillings while the price of half a kilogramme of bread has jumped from 1, 400 to 1, 600 shillings in most Kampala groceries and supermarkets.

But how many Ugandans consume sugar?

However there are those arguing that the increase in prices of sugar are not the most pressing need or issue government must attend to, with some arguing that there are few Ugandans who take sugar and there are more pressing economic and administrative issues the government needs to undertake to ensure the economy is not biting many Ugandans as it is currently.

“Honestly, why the fuss about sugar? Most of the peasants in Uganda or 80% of the population do not consume sugar because they cannot afford and this is since the early 70s. The current government move on sugar is all diversionary. The issue is the economy has been largely messed up by the powers that be,” says Wafula Ogutu, the Spokespeson of the Forum for Democratic Change.

“For years the middle and upper class of this nation, many of them involved in bleeding the country dry, thought they were cushioned from the results of their leeching. Now the chickens have come home to roost. It’s a nice picture seeing the well-to-do drive to Shopritte and queue for a kilo of sugar! There now comes the draw and hopefully it’ll bring a united voice to those calling for a change in the management of Uganda’s affairs,” says Jame Akiror, a teacher in Soroti.

MPs not impressed with government reaction to economic crisis

Several Members of Parliament including those from the ruling NRM Party have come out strongly on the rising prices of sugar and other essential commodities.

Lwemiyaga County Member of Parliament Theodore Sekikubo says that although the government action of removing taxes on sugar imports is welcome, it is not the solution to the current problems being experienced in the economy as whole.

“The gesture is welcome, but the government needs to take serious and sustainable economic strategies to reduce the cost of living for the ordinary poor Ugandan,” Ssekikubo says. He says the government must fight corruption which he (Sekikubo) blames for the high inflation in the country. He says many people (the corrupt) are getting money without producing any products or services, or working for the money, which creates imbalances in the economy.

Rwampara County Member of Parliament Vincent Kyamadidi says the government should in addition also reduce taxes on fuel, reasoning that high prices of fuel are the reason prices of several commodities and services are going up. “Goods have to be transported from one area to another, and people offering services also move to offer the services. Transport costs are now high because of rising fuel prices,” he says.

The Minister of Energy, Irene Muloni has however said the government is not considering reducing prices of fuel. She says scrapping any taxes on fuel will greatly affect government revenue collection and thus the government’s ability to offer social services.

Kyamadidi however says that government needs to refocus its expenditure patterns by putting more money in priority areas like agriculture instead of spending much on public administration.

The government however continues to dismiss such voices. President Museveni has refused to admit there is an economic problem in Uganda, saying the country’s economy is healthy and growing but a few instabilities being experienced are mainly occasioned by factors beyond Uganda’s control. But shouldn’t the government have some control over all issues that affect its citizens?

With the recent walk to work protests, the strikes by traders, teachers and taxi drivers all centered around hard economic times, there is enough warning for the government to look into the issues affecting the people. For now, only sugar has mattered to the politicians managing the country to warrant government intervention.

Ugandan Shilling Hits Greatest Low in 18 Years

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The shilling is the worst-performing currency against the dollar in the world so far this year, depreciating to 2,780 per dollar around 4 p.m. today.  Oil importers and telecommunication companies have played a strong role in the demand for U.S. currency, Bloomberg reported.

The shilling is the weakest against the dollar that it has been since July 1993.  The U.S. dollar has been strengthening significantly on the international markets as well, despite the S & P downgrade of the United States, due to international financial turmoil, particularly in the Eurozone.

In June, the shilling traded at sh2735/2750, but a Central Bank intervention strengthened it to sh2400, New Vision reported.

President Museveni spent one-third of the state budget—or 1.3 billion USD—in just the month of January 2011, shortly before the national elections.  $720 million was also spent on buying six Russian fighter jets, the Council on Foreign Relations reported.

Ugandan opposition leaders vowed yesterday to begin protests over the rising cost of living, particularly fuel and food, AFP reported.  Inflation last month reached 18.7 percent.

Kizza Besigye and other opposition politicians pledged to restart the walk-to-work protests at a candlelight vigil in Masaka for a toddler shot by a security officer in April.  Besigye was recently cleared of all charges against him connected to the demonstrations early this year.

As opposition supporters went to lay a wreath at the home where the child was shot, the army and police fired teargas into the crowd.  The Ugandan police spokeswoman Judith Nabakooba said any protest would be stopped for security reasons.

The Minister of Security, Wilson Muruli Mukasa, said that the opposition is using Twitter, Facebook, and Youtube as part of a “grand plan” to topple the government, BBC News reported.  Social media was being used, he said, to “psychologically prepare the people, especially young people, for armed insurrection”.

The government has voiced concerns that Besigye will organise an Egypt-style uprising gain power through the streets after losing elections in February, according to BBC News.

Violence in U.K. Causes Fear In African Immigrant Communities

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Cities in England suffered a fourth night of violence, causing fear and anxiety in many African immigrant communities in London, Manchester, Salford, Liverpool, Nottingham, and Birmingham.

Uganda’s deputy High Commissioner to London, Isaac Sebulime, told the Daily Monitor that the mission has closely monitored  the impact of the riots on the Ugandan diaspora, but have heard no reports of Ugandans being affected by the violence yet.

Three men from the Asian Muslim community were killed after being hit by a car in Birmingham on Tuesday night as they tried to protect their property, BBC News reported.  ”There are pockets of our society that are not just broken, but are frankly sick,” David Cameron said.

Over 800 people have been arrested, and more than 250 charged so far.  Some London courts are staying open all night to charge people with disorder and burglary.

“They are burning buses and cars- people are having a hard time trying to get to work or move around,” Brenda Atieno, a Kenyan living abroad in West Drayon, told the Nation.

Capital FM reported that many Kenyans in the U.K. were staying inside their homes or taking shelter with their friends to escape the violence.

Nigeria and Ghana also canceled a friendly match, to the disappointment of organizers and spectators, due to the violence in London, the Vanguard reported.

Riots began on Saturday after a peaceful protest in Tottenham after Mark Duggan, 29, was shot and killed by police.

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